For females, some seasonal differences were detected due to the lower contribution of buffalo to female diet in the early dry season, compensated for by an increase in secondary prey consumption, mainly kudu and medium Bovidae. For females, buffalo were followed by kudu (16%), the class medium Bovidae (13%), giraffe (12%), zebra (9%) and elephant (8%), together accounting for 91% of the prey detected (Table 1). Prey shift might be a response to larger variations in local prey abundance, perhaps over longer periods as shown for the Kruger National Park [21], or in ecosystems where more significant variation occurs in prey abundance over shorter time scales as shown for the Serengeti [41]. From just 26 in 1954, their numbers have swelled to over 2,500. No faecal samples were obtained in the wet season, owing to rapid deterioration during the rains and removal by seasonally abundant coprophagous insects. Browsers, not grazers: if you see a rhino mowing grassland, it will be a southern white. It was in Etosha that a study proved that elephant can communicate using infrasonic sounds; they literally bounce these off a thermal inversion layer in the atmosphere. The coastal plain and southern plateau are dominated by equatorial rainforest. We assessed seasonal prey preference using Jacobs selection index [35]: Where r is the proportion of the total number of kills or faecal samples of a particular species and p is the proportional availability of the prey species killed. The city of Harare is supplied with water from Lakes Chivero and Darwendale or Manyame river, Seke and Harava dams on the outskirts of the city. Shallow coastal aquifers are subject to seawater intrusion. This is the equivalent of the Bima sandstone of the Upper Benue basin in Nigeria (Mafany and Fantong 2006). Bold dashed lines indicate means. German Development Institute. A particularly beautiful and bountiful antelope with distinctive colouring, horns that outline a heart shape and immaculate white tummies, despite the dust. The hydrogeology map shows a simplified version of the type and productivity of the main aquifers at a national scale (see the Hydrogeology Map resource page for more details). The deeper aquifer is confined by the intervening clays, which is widely used for industry and domestic supplies in Douala (Mafany and Fantong 2006). It provides fresh water for an entire community. Kill investigation to study carnivore diet is biased towards larger species that are easier to detect using GPS data since predators will stay longer at a the kill of a larger prey animal, and using carcasses alone clearly underestimates the number of feeding events on small species, sometimes up to 50% [3], [4]. Whiskers indicate the range between 10% and 90% percentiles. Recent advances in GPS technology has allowed non invasive carcass observations and faecal analysis to gain increasing knowledge on large mammalian carnivores diet [3], [4], and has also permitted to study the spatial distribution of kills providing important information for predator-prey relationships [5]. Seasonal variation in the relative contribution by different prey species to lion kills, for males (M) and females (F), distinguishing age class proportions. Cameroon has one of the strongest economies in sub-Saharan Africa. Has its source in the water quality in Cameroon, the Lion Fund! In contrast, analysis of faeces tends to be biased against species with less hair, such as elephants, and very large bodied prey for which the body surface/volume ratio is smaller than for smaller species [37], and hence the likelihood of predators eating hairs is smaller. Surface water. They pronk: bounce with all four feet alternatively on and off the ground, for what seems to be pure joy. Cameroon has a dense network of perennial rivers. broad scope, and wide readership a perfect fit for your research every time. They are described in the relevant sections below. The Lake Chad basin contains three main geological units: a upper Quaternary-Lower Pliocene series; the Tertiary Continental Terminal; and the lower Cretaceous series of the Hamadien Continental and the Continental Intercalaire (GWP 2013). These statistics are sourced from FAO Aquastat. In Hwange, previous findings have shown that lion home range size was influenced by buffalo density in the late dry season ([40]). feeding locations) of African lions in Hwange National Park, Zimbabwe, a semi-arid African savanna structured by artificial waterholes. We use cookies to ensure that we give you the best experience on our website. Temperatures vary drastically in the Kalahari, going below zero on winter nights and reaching as high as 40 degrees Celsius during summer days. Our safari planners aren't available now. These, and others, may also be available through the Africa Groundwater Literature Archive, Ako Ako A, Eyong GET and Nkeng GE. Many springs emerge from hill slopes, some of them thermal (Mafany and Fantong 2006). We used data from 74 faecal samples. Four different kinds of cryptocurrencies you should know. 2009; Sigha-Nkamdjou et al. What are the characteristics of rivers in Cameroon? I travelled throughout Cameroon in February and March 2020 with colleagues from Wildlife Conservation Society and the Elephant Crisis Fund to gain a better understanding of the conservation landscape in . The funders had no role in study design, data collection and analysis, decision to publish, or preparation of the manuscript. Where does the Cameroon River get its water? Kill analysis revealed 14 different species being utilised by lions (Table 1). Samples were washed, sieved and sun dried to remove organic matter, and spread in a grid sampling tray. More information is available in the report Groundwater in North and West Africa: Cameroon (1988) (see References section, below). Cameroon also has a number of smaller lakes throughout the country. Jacobs index finally revealed a very strong preference for kills within 2 km from a waterhole for all prey species, except small antelopes, in all seasons. The prey items detected were categorised similarly to the prey detected from the kills. Dashed and dotted lines indicate mean proportions in the amalgamated kills for males and females respectively. Bundesanstalt fr Geowissenschaften und Rohstoffe (BGR). Please cite this page as: Upton, Dochartaigh & Bellwood-Howard, 2018. Sossusvlei Male lions showed a preference for medium Bovidae in the early dry and wet seasons, and for Suidae in the late dry and wet seasons (Fig. changing relative selection of prey species between seasons, is not characteristic of the Hwange lion population at least for the primary prey. Certain details were gradually implemented to ensure that the environment of the areas where they were detained were close to if not identical to the habitat where they originally lived in. Prey moves between the islands and lions have to cross the water to follow. "Some years back some boreholes were rehabilitated by either the local council or the community. This is consistent with previous findings suggesting that female lion home range size was constrained by the abundance of kudu in the early dry season [40]. Zimbabwe Parks and Wildlife Management Authority, Causeway, Harare, Zimbabwe. There are a number of natural lakes in Cameroon. Unfortunately, it is also a country where wildlife is subject to a wide and intense array of human pressures. 2020 WWF - World Wide Fund For Nature 1986 Panda Symbol WWF World Wide Fund For Nature (formerly World Wildlife Fund) WWF is a WWF Registered Trademark Creative Commons license. Water resources in northern Cameroon have continuously been reducing over the past years. Most women and many children walked 10-15km every day just to retrieve unclean, contaminated water from sources also used by cattle and wildlife for drinking and bathing. Seasonal differences in the distribution of prey consumed were tested using chi-square tests. Borehole yields are usually 1 to 3 m/hour, in the region of the Mandara mountains, but can rarely reach 30 m/hour in places in the Kribi region, associated with large faults (UN 1988). Dr Kirsty Upton and Brighid Dochartaigh, British Geological Survey, UK, Dr Imogen Bellwood-Howard, Institute of Development Studies, UK. Jacobs indices based on faecal data are closer to those for females based on kill data, which is to be expected as most faecal samples were collected at female kill sites. Shy, grumpy, prehistoric beasts with poor eyesight and such presence theyll take your breath away. The river is fed by two major tributaries (Pende River and Ouham-Pende) and drains into Chari River. Zebra and Suidae showed a peak in contribution to female lion diet in the late dry season (Fig. Jacobs indices revealed that lions of both sexes kill their prey preferentially within 2 km from a waterhole for all prey species except small antelopes (Fig. Call us to speak to an experienced safari planner. In 1884 the territory of Cameroon was colonised by Germany, and after the First World War divided between France and the UK. (A) Mean distance to a waterhole for kills for the different prey species. From buffalo to hippo and even adult elephant the there are prides that have adapted to preying on all. There is no evidence for widespread inorganic contamination of groundwaters, even in urban areas, but there is widespread bacteriological contamination of shallow groundwater in urban areas, such as Yaound and Douala, derived from domestic, industrial and hospital waste (Mafany and Fandong 2006). 2011. Unconsolidated aquifers - including alluvium, marine and estuarine deposits - occur in many parts of the country, and are typically in hydraulic continuity with underlying bedrock aquifers. Cameroon What Are The Specific Water Sources The Lions Exploit? What water sources do lions exploit in zimbabweabout school : Do sloths kill themselves by grabbing their arms; What water sources do lions exploit in zimbabwemaryland lacrosse camps 2021. Vassolo S. 2012. The main aquifer in this basin is formed of unconsolidated Pliocene (Tertiary)-Quaternary sands, which form an upper and a lower aquifer, separated by a clay layer. There are a series of parallel faults running northeast/southwest, with displacements that can reach 1000 m, and associated with large volcanic massifs of various ages and compositions. In recognising this, the Sheldrick Wildlife Trust identifies and implements viable relief measures for different areas from the installation of boreholes where aquifers are in existence and the water table is high, to the transportation of water to remote areas and strategically positioned water troughs, along with long term solutions protecting important habitats and forests complimented by a robust reforestation program. 7 Stunning African Honeymoon Destinations. Average distance-to-water revealed that lions typically kill between 1 and 4 km from a waterhole, with elephant and giraffe being the species killed most often the closest to a waterhole, and kudu and small antelopes killed the furthest away (Fig. Discover the magic of Devils Pool at Victoria Falls all your questions answered! Nigeria, Chad, the Central African Republic, Equatorial Guinea, Gabon, the Republic of the Congo. Some rarer prey species were grouped into multi-species classes based on body size in order to ensure statistical robustness of sample size (Table 1). Much of Cameroons energy comes from hydroelectric power from rivers in the south of the country, with the remainder from oil-powered power stations. Your email address will not be published. Some of the most mineralised groundwater is in volcanic aquifers, but the most mineralised are springs in the Mamf basin that are related to evaporites. Medium Bovidae contributed least in the late dry season (Fig. This index minimises the biases associated with small sample size (prey proportions below 10%), rare food items and non-linearity in proportional use over time [6]. Water and Sanitation Program. That was the only source of water for the entire Mambele community before WWF rehabilitated this stand tap. 2006. Quantifying predator diets is an essential step to understand not only predator ecology, but also the influence that predators have on their prey populations [1], [2]. Climate, Hydrology and Water Resources in Cameroon. Groundwater Need Assessment - Lake Chad Basin. Most often asked questions related to bitcoin. Further water and related statistics can be accessed at the Aquastat Main Database. "An average of 300 people depend on the water source," says Njounan Tegomo Olivier, WWF Collaborative Management Officer. AMCOW. _____ _____ abiotic factor environmental conditions biotic factor. The former French colony won independence in 1960, and the former British colony joined with it in 1961. Thus the importance of buffalo as prey is despite dry season variations when nutrition and water deprivation weaken susceptible individuals (young and old). 2009. 1988. Furthermore, juvenile elephants were selected by female lions in the wet season. Cameroon has a dense network of perennial rivers. Trees, grasses and bushes were heavy with raindrops and the bushveld was resonant with the noise of water dripping, flowing and surging. 1998). Livestock agriculture and fishing are also important, and the commercial bushmeat trade is large enough to threaten wildlife. Petroleum exploitation has fallen in recent decades but is still a significant contributor to the economy. The Kenya Water Resources Management Authority shall have the following powers and functions: However, water quality in Cameroon has improved in the last decade. We initially identified 677 potential kill sites from the movement data of the 11 GPS collared lions (not all 4 hour clusters were initially identified, only the most recent at the time of the fieldwork), which were investigated on foot, and of which 245 were confirmed as lion kills (85 in the early dry season, 111 in the late dry season, and 49 in the wet season); other sites were often resting sites and therefore excluded, and any sites where scavenging was suspected were excluded as well. Following established methods, hair cross-sections and scale pattern imprints were prepared for microscopic analysis using a Watson Microsystem 70 microscope [28], [29]. Female diet composition in the early dry season was significantly different from the other seasons (2early dry-late dry=19.06, df=7, p=0.008; 2early dry-wet=20.34, df=7, p=0.005; 2late dry-wet=14.07, df=7, p=0.05). While many streams meander through the forested areas of East Cameroon, only few springs like that of Mambele are drinkable. Cameroons location on the atlantic coast in central africa between latitude 2 and 13north, has a huge and diversified water resources potential. Some seasonal patterns were suggested for secondary prey, however. The uppermost sandy layer is hydraulically connected with brackish waters in the Wouri estuary, and saline waters of the coastal wetlands. Conceived and designed the experiments: ZD AJL DWM FM. Cameroon, a country located in Central Africa, is one of those places. In terms of quantity, it is the second potential in. A number of agreements and cooperative activities exist between these countries (e.g Alker 2008). Water is artificially supplied to some waterholes during the dry season (40 in the study area). The following references provide more information on the geology and hydrogeology of Cameroon. 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